The Decline of Union Power and Organized Labor

When the Industrial Revolution swept the United States up in a flurry of new innovations and employment opportunities, no regulations existed yet to govern how employees were treated in the factories or mines but organized labor unions began popping up across the country in order to protect these unrepresented working class citizens. However, the according to the  U.S. Department of State, the changing conditions of the 1980s and 1990s undermined the position of organized labor, which now represented a shrinking share of the workforce. Between 1945 and 1998, union membership fell from just over one-third of the workforce to 13.9 percent. Still, powerful union contributions to political campaigns and members voter-turnout efforts have kept unions interests represented in government to this day. This has recently, however, been mitigated by legislation allowing workers to withhold the portion of their union dues used to oppose or support political candidates. Competition and the Need to Continue Operations Corporations began shutting down work unions resistance movements around the late 1970s when international and domestic competition drove the need to continue operations in order to survive in the cutthroat marketplace that was developing in the 1980s. Automation also played a key role in breaking up union efforts by developing labor-saving automated processes including state of the art machinery, replacing the role of swathes of workers at every factory. Unions still fought back though, with limited success, demanding guaranteed annual incomes, shorter workweeks with shared hours, and free retraining to take on new roles associated with the upkeep of machinery. Strikes have also notably declined in the 1980s and 90s, especially after President Ronald Reagan fired Federal Aviation Administration  air traffic controllers who issued an illegal strike. Corporations have since been more willing to hire strikebreakers when unions walk out, too. A Shift in Workforce and Declining Memberships With the rise of automation and the decline of strike success and means for employees to express their demands effectively, the workforce of the United States shifted to a service industry focus, which has traditionally been a sector unions have been weaker in recruiting and retaining members from. According to the U.S. Department of State, Women, young people, temporary and part-time workers — all less receptive to union membership — hold a large proportion of the new jobs created in recent years. And much American industry has migrated to the southern and western parts of the United States, regions that have a weaker union tradition than do the northern or the eastern regions. Negative publicity about corruption within high-ranking union members has also sullied their reputation and resulted in lower labor involved in their membership. Young workers, perhaps due to a perceived entitlement to the past victories of labor unions for better working conditions and benefits, have also shied away from joining unions. The biggest reason these unions have seen a decline in membership, though, may be due to the strength of the economy in the late 1990s and again from 2011 through 2017. Just between October and November 1999 alone, the unemployment rate fell 4.1 percent, meaning an abundance of jobs made people feel like workers no longer needed unions to maintain their jobs.

The Makropulos Case Analysis - 1760 Words

Bernard William’s The Makropulos Case focuses on the topic of immortality, and the issues that would arise from being immortal. William’s uses the concept of the Makropulos play to refute the idea of immortality, because the protagonist kills themselves out of unbearable boredom from exhausting their categorical desires. Whereas John Martin Fischer rejects William’s view of immortality, due to the limiting constraints of his argument. Fischer asserts the immortal life would be livable, because it reflects a mortal life. In effect, I will further Fischer’s argument, in proposing the concept of categorical desires evolving, and then the significance of external factors occurring in society. Therefore, this essay will explain the significant†¦show more content†¦Therefore, William’s asserts the immortal life would be undesirable, or unlivable since we will inevitably exhaust our categorical desires (100). Whereas, Fischer denies William’s dilemma, because his argument is too narrow in thinking, because William asserts the agent would possess only one categorical desire. However, Fischer denies William’s assertion, because the immortal agent would not be pursuing only one interest. Fischer questions William’s mode of reasoning on why the agent must pursue only one interest; Fischer proposes that the individual would possess a package of categorical desires, which would enable the agent to move in to their immortal future without succumbing to eternal boredom. â€Å"Certainly, an immortal life could consist in a certain mix of activities, possibly including friendship, love, family, intellectual, artistic and athletic activity, sensual delights, and so forth† (216). Rather relentlessly pursuing one good, the packages of categorical desires enable the agent to move between pleasures and keep themselves busy. Furthermore, Fischer rejects William’s asser tion that the immortal agent cannot undergo any form of boredom, and that they must constantly be absorbed in their environment. Fischer asserts all mortal lives consists of temporary moments of boredom/pains, which enable the agent to proceed to mentally stimulating environment/goods (261). Furthermore, the possible issue that the agent would have aShow MoreRelatedThe Makropulos Case Analysis1765 Words   |  8 PagesBernard Williams’ The Makropulos Case, focuses on the topic of immortality, and the issues that would arise from being immortal. Williams’ uses the concept of the Makropulos play to refute the idea of immortality, because the protagonist kills themselves out of unbearable boredom from exhausting their categorical desires. Whereas John Martin Fischer rejects Williams’ view of immortality, due to the limiting constraints of his argument. Fischer asserts the immortal life would be livable, because it

Micro And Nano Electromechanical Systems Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(39) " order to bring forth precise devices\." Introduction It is the procedure by which electricity drives all highly little mechanical devices. It consists of both electrical and mechanical constituents. Components are in the scope of 1 to 100 microns in size and due to its big surface to volume ratio electrostatics and wetting forces dominate. We will write a custom essay sample on Micro And Nano Electromechanical Systems Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now MEMS are fabricated utilizing semiconducting material device fiction engineerings chiefly used to fabricate smaller devices. MEMS is categorized as actuators and detectors. Detectors are non invasive whereas actuators are invasive and modify the environment. MEMS produce big figure of devices, which have indistinguishable belongingss, by batch processing. In aerospace field dependability is more of import compared to batch processing, as the ballistic capsule has to work for longer clip without failure. Miniaturization of electronics is brought about by decreased cost and mass production. These factors along with decreased size, weight, cost, detectors and actuators are used in miniaturisation of electronics. Micro technology engineering will profit aerospace systems due to decreased size, mass and power demands. Batch fiction of MEMS brought about the revolution of incorporate devices [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MEMS integrate the non-electronic detectors with signal conditioning and digital logic electronics on a individual bit. Hence the constituents can be altered based on their on the job status. Actuators are chiefly used to command flux. In aerospace applications MEMS are inserted into micro propulsion systems, strain detectors, inertial gesture detectors, magnetic field detectors, force per unit area detectors, flow rate detectors and so on [ 1 ] . Few Instruments USED FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS Micromachined air-breathing propulsors and actuators MEMS engineering has been used in the industry of solid-state propulsion, called the man-made jet. It is based on the construct of pumping the fluid in oscillating gesture. Actuator has a little hole in a pit. Volume of this pit can be modulated in an oscillating manner. To drive this volume of the pit any mechanical device can be used such that it operates at its resonating frequence. The construction is operated at its resonating frequence so that the drive amplitudes, which are achieved, are moderate. Sucking and blowing the fluid instead through a little hole is how the actuator operates. It should be take attention that the pump shot has a directed jet whereas the suction shot will pull fluid from all waies. Finally we see that the unstable drawn from the sides has low impulse and the fluid expelled upwards has higher impulse [ 2 ] [ 4 ] . The disadvantage of this device is that it is non really efficient as a device on the whole as the entire impulse imparted to the jet is really little. Man-made jets, which are fabricated by MEMS, have the undermentioned advantages i ) uniformity if the device is high and the losingss due to mechanical inefficiencies are reduced due to high Q public presentation of MEMS two ) push of the system can be increased by building arrays of actuators [ 2 ] [ 4 ] . NMP ST5 THERMAL LOUVERS This looks at the flight proof of advanced micro sat engineerings that have non yet been flown to infinite so that the hazard associated with the hereafter NASA missions can be reduced. MEMS shutters have been developed for smart thermic control [ 2 ] . JWST MICROSHUTTER ARRAY James Webb Space Telescope has developed a MEMS based microshutter array. This was developed near the spectrometer instrument. It is composed of for faculties with dimensions of 175 by 384 pels. This device is advantageous as these microshutter are extremely selectively configurable in order to do usage of the NASA ‘s sensor. It is made out of Si nitride membrane [ 2 ] [ 4 ] . INCHWORM MICROACTUATORS This is developed for extremist preciseness placement of the mirror sections in the ballistic capsule. This was chiefly developed utilizing the MEMS/NEMS engineering [ 2 ] . NMP ST6 INERTIAL STELLAR CAMERA It combines MEMS inertial detectors with active pel detectors in order to do it a multifunctional bundle. This s used to take high-resolution exposures in infinite. It has embedded MEMS gyroscope [ 2 ] . MICROTHRUSTERS These enable micropropulsive tactics for formation winging and besides the pointing of nano, pico and micro orbiters exactly. Without MEMS engineering being used for propulsion these devices can non fulfill the limited system mass and power restraints. MEMS engineering is used it provides the advantage of high denseness, low power and volume, big push degrees, quotable push vectors and integrating is simple. For MEMS we make usage of a Si substrate for fabricating [ 2 ] . Fabrication OF MEMS TECHNOLOGY MEMS fiction is a portion of the fiction engineerings. Traditional machining procedure uses big sum of diverse stuffs, 3-dimensional devices can be fabricate in order to bring forth precise devices. You read "Micro And Nano Electromechanical Systems Engineering Essay" in category "Essay examples" When we use MEMS fiction the stuffs used are more limited but little dimension devices can be manufactured. The fiction methods can be grouped into three chief classs. They are: Lithography, Galvanoformung, Abformung ( LIGA ) Bulk micromachining Sacrificial surface micromachining The last two procedures are silicon based. Bulk micromachining utilizations wet or dry etching procedures besides in order to bring forth isotropic and anisotropic stuffs. They produce MEMS structures that can be used for inertial detectors, force per unit area detectors and noses [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . LIGA – It helps to do complex constructions of metals, which are electroplatable, and holding high aspect ratios and thickness of several hundred micrometers. This procedure makes usage of ten beam lithography, thick resist beds and metals in order to organize complex constructions. The procedure starts by lodging a thin bed of sacrificial bed used for dividing the LIGA country from the country of the substrate after fiction. This has good adhesion and merely a think stuff will be sputter deposited. Titanium and Ni are the common stuff used for this procedure. X ray synchrotron is done following in order to bring forth walls over the thick resist to for a mask. Then we do electroplating of the base stuff after which shining is done. The sacrificial bed is removed in order to bring forth the LIGA portion. Magnetic propulsion is possible with this [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . BULK MICROMACHINING – The different countries that have to considered during etching is: Dissembling Selectivity of etch due to crystallographic orientation Etch halt and stop point sensing Endpoint sensing is used in order to command the deepness of the etch and besides to minimise the harm to the movies lying beneath. Plasma etching is best suited for this procedure [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . SACRIFIAL SURFACE MICROMACHINING – This method is holding its roots on deposition, modeling and etching of stuffs on a substrate. They will hold alternate beds of sacrificial and substrate stuff. Sacrificial bed is removed towards the terminal of the procedure, which consequences in a mechanical construction. An anneal is required in order to cut down the degrees of emphasis. The MEMS micromachines are much larger and thicker compared to the microelectronic devices [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MEMS bundles for aerospace applications – these bundles are used in order to minimise the size, cost, mass and complexness of the system. It helps to supply interface between the overall system and the constituents. These bundles must run into demands such as thermic cycling, humidness, high temperature operation, radiation and daze to call a few [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MECHANICAL SUPPORT – This is extremely mechanical in nature hence it has to be protected from high acceleration, mechanical daze, radiation and other physical amendss associated with it. This depends strictly on the applications like when a ballistic capsule lands on the planet ‘s surface it will see greater mechanical daze than any other ballistic capsule. Coefficient of thermic enlargement ( CTE ) of the MEMS bundle should be equal to or greater than CTE of Si on order for it to be dependable. The thermic parametric quantities can ensue in delamination or decease checking if there is any job with the Si or emphasis. After CTE job is take attention of the following thing to be considered is physical harm [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . Protection FROM ENVIRONMENT- MEMS packaging has to be protected from physical harm and besides when it is packaged during fiction and before it is sealed. Main attention has to be taken because of its reaction with wet as it causes the stuffs to swell, emphasis and delaminate. Hence, these bundles need to be hermetic with the sidewalls, base and palpebra in order for high dependability. They should be constructed from stuffs that can move as good barriers to liquid and gases and besides they should non pin down gases. Some MEMS french friess require vacuity conditions in order for it to run decently [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . Feature size 3-5Â µm 3-5Â µm 1Â µm 10-25Â µm Device thickness A ; gt ; 1mm A ; gt ; 1mm 13mm Very Large Lateral dimension A ; gt ; 2mm A ; gt ; 2mm 2mm A ; gt ; 10m Relative tolerance 10^-2 10^-2 10^-1 A ; gt ; 10^-3 Materials Electroplated metals or injection plated plastic Very limited stuff Very limited stuff Highly big sum of stuff Assembly demands Assembly required Assembly required Assembled as fancied Assembly required Scalability Limited Limited Yes Yes Microelectronic intergrability No Yes Yes No Device geometry Two dimensional high facet ratio Two dimensional high facet ratio Multi bed two dimensional Very flexible three dimensional Processing Parallel processing at wafer degree Parallel processing at wafer degree Parallel processing at wafer degree Consecutive processing Table: COMPARISION OF MEMS FABICATION METHODS TYPES OF MEMS PACKAGES Metallic element PACKAGES – This provides first-class thermic dissipation and electromagnetic shielding. They can hold big internal volume but still dependable. Package will hold integrated sidewalls and base with palpebras. Materials are mainly metals like CuW, which have good thermic conduction, and higher CTE compared to silicon. Trapped gases should be removed invariably as it reduces failures related to corrosion. Au-Sn solder is used when stuffs have to be bonded. Welding can besides be used alternatively of solder. The metallization procedure allows for wetting the conducting pin wholly to the ceramic. Incomplete wetting consequences in failure during proving [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . CERAMIC PACKAGES – These have low mass, cost and can be produced in majority. These can be made hermetic and can execute different map. When we incorporate multiple beds of ceramics and interconnect lines, electrical public presentation of the bundle will run into the design demands. On each movie a metal bed is deposited utilizing thick movie processing and holes for interconnects are drilled. After these beds are fabricated the portion is fired at high temperature and MEMS and other constituents is attached to it. Many factors should be take attention of in this bundle that is the sum of holes, shriveling beds, treating temperature and ceramic belongingss. Frequently used metals are W and Mo. Normally used music directors are Ag, AgPd, Au and AuPt [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . THIN-FILM MULTILAYER PACKAGES – Two engineerings are used. First uses polyamide sheets, which are laminated together. Second, polymeric amide is used in this instance besides but each bed is spun onto and baked on carried to organize beds. In this method we use etching. The polymeric amides have lower permittivity so it has low line electrical capacity, which consequences in faster circuits [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . Plastic PACKAGES – These have lower fabrication cost. These are non extremely dependable and are non anchoritic in nature. These bundles are susceptible to checking in humid environment. Hence these bundles have non gained much importance [ 6 ] . EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF MEMS FOR SPACE MEMS devices used for infinite applications have reduced weight, cost, size and power ingestion. Common detectors and actuators used are accelerometers, gyroscopes, gaussmeters and spectrometers. VARIABLE EMITTANCE COATING INSTRUMENT FOR SPACE TECHNOLOGY 5 The tegument on the orbiter where we need to maintain the MEMS based thermic control is called variable emittance surfacing instrument. This consist of 2 parts I ) MEMS shutter array radiator ( MSA ) and electronic control unit ( ECA ) . MSA located on bottom deck of ballistic capsule whereas ECA located within the ballistic capsule. Consists of arrays in the order of 150mm long and 6 millimeters broad shutters and are driven by electrostatic combs. Device exposed to the radiator and substrate should be thermally and electrically coupled to the radiator so that heat is allowed to reassign and electric charging is prevented. A polymer called CPI, which is both transmissive and electrically conductive, is used to extinguish the jeopardies due to environment. A 4mm movie midst is sandwiched and bonded. CPI movie is suspended above shutters and Acts of the Apostless as a barrier between MEMS and environment. Coating of InSnO2 is applied to for electrical conduction [ 7 ] . FLAT PLASMA SPECTROMETER FOR THE USAFA FALCONSAT-3 MEMS fiction helped in doing usage of level plasma spectrometer ( FIaPS ) , which provides finer declarations and angular distributions. FIaPS was placed on the orbiter which will so mensurate the ion spectra derived function in energy. This instrument includes a PCB, power supply, detector caput array and human body. Sensor caput is fabricated and assembled, it consists of an array of indistinguishable spectrometer faculties and an anode home base for sensing. This consists of three beds of Si and two beds of Be Cu. Five beds are stacked instead. CuBe home bases were used for preciseness to accomplish array of channels. Each Si had 5 dies. Wafer was diced such that each of the five dies are bonded separately to the CuBe home bases. The remainder of the points were assembled and packaged into ballistic capsule interface lodging unit utilizing many prison guards. Bonded constituents of detector caput used iridite plated aluminum rods for maintain the MCP [ 7 ] . MICROMIRROR ARRAYS FOR THE JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE ( JWST ) JWST is equipped with mutiobject spectrometer, MEMS mirror arrays which acts as a slit mask for the spectrometer and selectively direct visible radiation from different parts in the infinite to the spectrometer. CMOS driver bit was designed. Large french friess are bonded onto Si substrate to extinguish emphasiss due to mismatched coefficients between the bit and substrate. CMOS assembly was put inside the bundle utilizing peripheral force per unit area contacts [ 7 ] . MICROJET JET ENGINES This is a micromachined actuator used for propulsion and energy transitions. This device is being developed presently consists of a compressor, burning chamber and turbine. It uses H as its fuel. High aspect ratio of this device is obtained utilizing reactive ion etching ( RIE ) which is an advanced method of MEMS engineering [ 7 ] . Detectors and Actuators in Aerospace Applications Detectors are used in assortment of aerospace applications like set downing cogwheel, ice protection. Measuring of fuel and pilotage. Modern airplanes have automated cockpits and a batch for information about the aircrafts tallness, velocity, temperature and cabin force per unit area is given by the array of detectors in it. These vehicles besides have automatic pilotage due to inertial counsel systems and conditions updates are given continuously. These detectors are utile in meteoric facets to cognize more about the conditions [ 7 ] . The usage of MEMS in aerospace systems is extremely application particular and reduced the size, power ingestion and weight at the constituent degree. The cost and advantage and electronic integrating capacities of MEMS will assist in leting distributed measuring and propulsion. This helps in cut downing size, wet content and it becomes more vulnerable and dependable [ 7 ] . Decision Here we have seen a big figure of packaging applications that ‘s have been used by MEMS devices in infinite applications. In the semiconducting material industry, these bundles are the lone devices that can protect devices from radiation and this holds for packaging of MEMS device. These actuators and detectors need to be exposed to the environment to execute their original maps ; besides due to the individualism of MEMS devices, there is no general bundle solution, every device requires its ain bundle attack of MEMS. The bundle needs to protect the device from all the environmental conditions. Humid and wet content has to be taken attention of decently for MEMS bundles to be dependable. There been many chances to turn out how utile these bundles are in the flight and infinite applications. In order to larn more about MEMS applications many more flight chances should be made [ 6 ] . How to cite Micro And Nano Electromechanical Systems Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Competitive Strategy for Microsoft & Starbucks-myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theCompetitive Strategy for Microsoft Starbucks. Answer: Microsoft Microsoft was established in the year 1975. It was founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen. The company has its headquarters in Washington, USA. Company deals in computer software industry, customer hardware industry and consumer electronics. Key products of the company include Windows, Office, Servers, Skype, Visual studio, Xbox, Mobile and lot more. Main services of the company are Bing, LinkedIn, one drive, outlook, windows store etc. Companys mission is to enable every individual and organisation to achieve more by empowering them. The company is worlds most valuable company of the world and leader in the software industry. Satya Nadella is the current CEO of the company (Microsoft, 2017). Microsoft products are today used by almost all the individuals and offices. The company can be thought of as a profit producing machine that is well managed (Marks, 2013). The credit for the success of the company can be given to various factors. Some of those are discussed here. The major reason for the Microsoft being a powerful player in market is that its management is very effective. IT the past so many years the Microsoft has not made any major blunders. The company faced some twist and turns but was able to recover through them. This is one the reasons that company is most trustworthy. The Microsoft had a diverse business portfolio. When others thought of the declining market share of windows the Microsoft invested itself into various other strong domains. Major of them were Xbox which got great success in gaming. The company has built multiple business platforms to deal with the uncertainties of the particular segment (Satell, 2013). Another reason for the current market sta nding of the company is its ability and willingness to think out of the box. Microsoft has around 1000 research labs that are designed to give innovative products and users. It continuously work s on various projects to provide something different and useful Major innovative projects on which company is working on include the Surface Hub, Hololens and Oculus Rift (Gewirtz, 2015). Another tactics of the firm that helped it to gain current market success is communication with enterprise. The company product Windows Vista was unsuccessful in the markets. Therefore before launching Windows the company provided it to the few enterprises and checked for the suitability of the product. The company had communication with the selected enterprises to find out the debugs and errors in the product. This communication helped the firm to alter the product before launching it on the large scale. The current sales show how positively this tactics of the company responded (Reisinger, 2010). The oth er contributing success factor for the company is effective management of intellectual capital. By the term intellectual capital it does not always means patents; it means the broad knowledge base that has been developed by the company over the time. This knowledge base in embedded in software development libraries which help in effective and efficient management of the product. Microsofts community partners, who are now 40,000 firms in number, also contribute for innovative product development (Silverthrone, 2002). Starbucks Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in the year 1971. This is an American coffee company and coffee house chain (Starbucks, 2016). Kevin Johnson is the current CEO of the company. The company provides differentiation in terms of quality, taste and customer experience. The company introduced dark roasted coffee and handmade light roasted coffee. The company serves coffee beverages, tea, smoothies, baked goods and sandwiches. Starbucks began as a small Coffee been store and today it is the well-known global brand. The company faced many downturns and challenges but still holds the prominent market position. There are various reasons for the current market standing of the company. Some of those reasons are ambience, wide market targeting and consistently convenient. The ambience of the place is a major factor drawing customers to the company. The prices of the company are very high and customers are ready to pay that price not only because of the coffee taste. The reason for that is the attractive ambience of the place. Almost all the outlets of the Starbucks have similar kind of ambience. This includes rich warm colour scheme, baristas in green aprons, organic-looking art and alternative music. The next success factor for the company is wide target market. The company focused on wide target market. It developed products for all age groups. The menu includes plenty of beverages other than coffee and small snack sections. This helps to attract snack seekers and children. It serves as a place for everyone. Starbucks is a customer centric organisation and keeps all the needs of the customer s at priority. The Starbucks is the worlds largest food chain with around 17000 stores across 50 countries because of its business model. Starbucks focus on the convenience for the customer. The well skilled and trained workforce at skilled workforce of the Starbucks works to continuously serve the customers best of their level. The company is also working to make the ordering process cashless. The Companys model is designed in such a way that it provides the feeling of relaxation to its customers (Hennessey, 2012). Also the business model of the company is culturally sensitive to different cultures across the globe. Another factor that contributed to the companys success is adaptation to the digital means. For instance, in the Asia pacific region the company has recently launched new loyalty programme and designed a mobile and digital payment platform (Team, 2016). Another factor that is responsible for current market standing is deep understanding of CAGE framework. The CAGE frame work gives an understanding about Cultural, Administrative, Geographic and Economic differences between the countries. This Framework has enabled the company to clearly identify the differences in the overseas market and the company adopted market strategy according to them. The other success driving factors for the company are diverse product mix, creating substantial partnership and innovative and versatile products and services. The company also has strong marketing mix. It uses various marketing tools as direct mail for the purpose of distributing coupons to frequent customers, newspaper advertising, diversification of brand name and social media marketing. References Gewirtz, D., 2015. 10 reasons Microsoft is still a force to be reckoned with, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.zdnet.com/article/10-reasons-microsoft-is-still-a-force-to-be-reckoned-with/ Hennessey, R., 2012. 3 Reasons Why Starbucks Still Shines, Despite Market Shortcomings. The Forbes, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelhennessey/2012/08/06/3-reasons-why-starbucks-still-shines-despite-market-shortcomings/#3e81c5631cd0 Marks, G., 2013. The Secret To Microsoft's Success, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/quickerbettertech/2013/10/28/the-secret-to-microsofts-success/#2c9cd9773915 Microsoft, 2017. We believe in what people make possible, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/about/default.aspx Reisinger, D., 2010. 10 Things Microsoft Did to Make Windows 7 a Success, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.eweek.com/enterprise-apps/10-things-microsoft-did-to-make-windows-7-a-success Satell, G., 2013. The Secret of Microsoft's Success (And Some Lessons For Apple), viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregsatell/2013/04/15/the-secret-of-microsofts-success-and-some-lessons-for-apple/#23dfdd841587 Silverthrone, S., 2002. The Secret of How Microsoft Stays on Top, Harvard Business School, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://hbswk.hbs.edu/ Starbucks, 2016. About Us, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.starbucks.in/about-us Team, T., 2016. Let's Look At Starbucks' Growth Strategy. The Forbes, viewed on 24 August 2017 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2016/09/19/lets-look-at-starbucks-growth-strategy/#549674923d71

10 Ways to Maximize Research at the Courthouse or Archives

10 Ways to Maximize Research at the Courthouse or Archives The process of researching your family tree will eventually lead you to a courthouse, library, archives or other repository of original documents and published sources. The day-to-day joys and hardships of your ancestors’ lives can often be found documented among the numerous original records of the local court, while the library may contain a wealth of information on their community, neighbors and friends. Marriage certificates, family histories, land grants, military rosters and a wealth of other genealogical clues are tucked away in folders, boxes, and books just waiting to be discovered. Before heading for the courthouse or library, however, it helps to prepare. Try these 10 tips for planning your visit and maximizing your results. 1. Scout the Location The first, and most important, step in onsite genealogy research is learning which government most likely had jurisdiction over the area in which your ancestors lived during the time they lived there. In many places, especially in the United States, this is the county or county equivalent (e.g. parish, shire). In other areas, the records may be found housed in town halls, probate districts or other jurisdictional authorities. Youll also have to bone up on changing political and geographical boundaries to know who actually had jurisdiction over the area where your ancestor lived for the time period youre researching, and who has current possession of those records. If your ancestors lived near the county line, you may find them documented among the records of the adjoining county. While a bit uncommon, I actually have an ancestor whose land straddled the county lines of three counties, making it necessary for me to routinely check the records of all three counties (and their parent co unties!) when researching that particular family. 2. Who Has the Records? Many of the records youll need, from vital records to land transactions, are likely to be found at the local courthouse. In some cases, however, the older records may have been transferred to a state archives, local historical society, or other repository. Check with members of the local genealogical society, at the local library, or online through resources such as the Family History Research Wiki or GenWeb  to learn where the records for your location and time period of interest might be found. Even within the courthouse, different offices usually hold different types of records, and may maintain different hours and even be located in different buildings. Some records may also be available in multiple locations, as well, in microfilm or printed form. For U.S. research, The Handybook for Genealogists or Red Book: American State, County and Town Sources, both include state-by-state and county-by-county lists of which offices hold which records. You may also want to explore WPA Hist orical Records Survey inventories, if available for your locality, to identify other potential records. 3. Are the Records Available? You dont want to plan a trip halfway across the country only to find that the records you seek were destroyed in a courthouse fire in 1865. Or that the office stores the marriage records in an offsite location, and they need to be requested in advance of your visit. Or that some of the county record books are being repaired, microfilmed, or are otherwise temporarily unavailable. Once youve determined the repository and records you plan to research, it is definitely worth the time to call to make sure the records are available for research. If the original record you seek is no longer extant, check the Family History Library Catalog to see if the record is available on microfilm. When I was told by a North Carolina county deed office that Deed Book A had been missing for some time, I was still able to access a microfilmed copy of the book through my local Family History Center. 4. Create a Research Plan As you enter the doors of a courthouse or library, its tempting to want to jump into everything at once. There usually arent enough hours in the day, however, to research all records for all of your ancestors in one short trip. Plan your research before you go, and youll be less tempted by distractions and less likely to miss important details. Create a checklist with names, dates and details for each record you plan to research in advance of your visit, and then check them off as you go. By focusing your search on just a few ancestors or a few record types, youll be more likely to achieve your research goals. 5. Time Your Trip Before you visit, you should always contact the courthouse, library or archives to see if there are any access restrictions or closures which may affect your visit. Even if their website includes operating hours and holiday closures, it is still best to confirm this in person. Ask if there are any limits on the number of researchers, if you have to sign up in advance for microfilm readers, or if any courthouse offices or special library collections maintain separate hours. It also helps to ask if there are certain times which are less busy than others. Next 5 More Tips for Your Courthouse Visit Research Tips 1-5 6. Learn the Lay of the Land Each genealogical repository you visit is going to be slightly different - whether its a different layout or setup, different policies and procedures, different equipment, or a different organizational system. Check the facilitys website, or with other genealogists who utilize the facility, and familiarize yourself with the research process and procedures before you go. Check the card catalog online, if it is available, and compile a list of the records you want to research, along with their call numbers. Ask if there is a reference librarian who specializes in your specific area of interest, and learn what hours he/she will be working. If records youll be researching use a certain type of index system, such as the Russell Index, then it helps to familiarize yourself with it before you go. 7. Prepare for Your Visit Courthouse offices are often small and cramped, so it is best to keep your belongings to a minimum. Pack a single bag with a notepad, pencils, coins for the photocopier and parking, your research plan and checklist, a brief summary of what you already know about the family, and a camera (if allowed). If you plan to take a laptop computer, make sure that you have a charged battery, because many repositories do not provide electrical access (some do not allow laptops). Wear comfortable, flat shoes, as many courthouses don’t offer tables and chairs, and you may spend a lot of time on your feet. 8. Be Courteous Respectful Staff members at archives, courthouses and libraries are generally very helpful, friendly people, but they are also very busy trying to do their job. Respect their time and avoid pestering them with questions not specifically related to research in the facility or hold them hostage with tales about your ancestors. If you have a genealogy how-to question or trouble reading a particular word that just cant wait, it is usually better to ask another researcher (just dont pester them with multiple questions either). Archivists also greatly appreciate researchers who refrain from requesting records or copies just before closing time! 9. Take Good Notes Make Plenty of Copies While you may take the time to reach a few on-site conclusions about the records you find, it is usually best to take everything home with you where you have more time to examine it thoroughly for every last detail. Make photocopies of everything, if possible. If copies arent an option, then take the time to make a transcription or abstract, including misspellings. On each photocopy, make note of the complete source for the document. If you have time, and money for copies, it can also be helpful to make copies of the complete index for your surname(s) of interest for certain records, such as marriages or deeds. One of them may later make an appearance in your research 10. Concentrate on the Unique Unless the facility is one you can easily access on a regular basis, it is often beneficial to begin your research with the parts of its collection that arent easily available elsewhere. Concentrate on original records that havent been microfilmed, family papers, photograph collections, and other unique resources. At the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, for example, many researchers begin with the books as they are generally not available on loan, while the microfilms can be borrowed through your local Family History Center, or sometimes viewed online. Sources Eichholz, Alice (Editor). Red Book: American State, County Town Sources. 3rd Revised edition, Ancestry Publishing, June 1, 2004. Hansen, Holly (Editor). The Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America. 11th Edition, Revised edition, Everton Pub, February 28, 2006.

Strategic Analysis Report Essays

Strategic Analysis Report Essays Strategic Analysis Report Essay Strategic Analysis Report Essay Additionally heavy maintenance was consolidated to Avalon and Brisbane with Tullamarine in Melbourne closing by August 2012 (Qantas, 2012). This report considers the position of Qantas as at 1st May 2012 but considers this announcement justification of the report’s recommendations. 2|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 2 Executive Summary The dynamic nature of the global commercial aviation industry requires organisational structures and strategies that exemplify controls facilitating flexibility and prompt market responsiveness. The industry is heavily influenced via ncreasing global operational expenses, volatility and competition creating numerous challenges for Qantas’ long-term survival. Moreover, constant changes of consumer behaviour, perception and purchasing powers are directly influencing Qantas’ diminishing profit margins alongside high operational expenditure. It is crucial for Qantas’ to optimise opportunities and manage complex trade-offs involving value chain and supply chain management (SCM) activities. Numerous mechanisms exist to maximise the differences between perceived value and actual costs of supply chain activities.The key challenges for Qantas are to conceptualise strategies that provide a balance of efficiency and effectiveness. Initial internal and external analyses determined key discrepancies involving Qantas’ direction of global and functional-level strategies. The analyses identified integrated, global standardisation, human resource (HR) and operational strategies as the primary segments to adjust. Key deficiencies arose regarding international competitiveness, terminal/plant consolidation, operational restructure requirements, workforce personnel skill and training enhancements and continual Industrial Relations (IR) disputes.As such, distinct emphasis to Qantas’ management amplified top and middle managerial inadequacies and change requirements. The analysis concluded that Qantas should implement a hybrid strategy through the integration of global standardisation and operational strategies. This combined strategy will address effective controls and policies, enabling cost reductions from non value-adding activities and redirecting capital to value-adding functions, thus effectively progressing Qantas’ strategic objectives towards sustainable practices and growth. |Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 3 Two Potential Strategies The strategic objectives for Qantas’ future intent are to mitigate potential risks. This can be achieved via either a global or functional level strategy. This report analyses the benefits and limitations of these strategies and presents a realistic recommendation for long term strategic sustainability. 3. 1 Global Strategy Global strategy plays a vital role in strengthening organisations such as Qantas (Hill Jones, 2010).Through the use of integration and global standardisation Qantas will be able to enhance its operations and increase its aviation market share. These strategies will enhance Qantas’ consumer base, whilst improving customer service outcomes. The implementation of these strategies will enable superior quality service delivery and improved performance against rivals in the aviation industry. 3. 1. 1 Integration Strategy In order to counter strong competition in international markets, increasing importance is placed on Multinational Organisations such as Qantas to integrate its overseas operations.Global Integration Strategy positions organisations like Qantas to gain advantage by geographically dispersing and specialising its operations (Porter, 1986). This localisation results in cost efficiencies and economies of scale improving competitiveness (Mauri, 2003). Qantas operates a vast international network but could take advantage of horizontal integration to build its network in booming markets such as Asia, while offset losses on unpopular routes. This could be achieved by creating wholly owned subsidiaries, joint ventures, or strengthening alliances with partner airlines in the OneWorld program and beyond.Alliance Networks can guide Qantas to recover its losses internationally by leveraging economies of scale generated by code sharing and commercial partnerships (Lawton, 201 1). 4|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 To compete with local hub based carriers such as Singapore Airlines (Singapore) and Emirates (Dubai), Qantas could vertically integrate some ground support and maintenance operations. Such undertakings would allow the Qantas brand to increase competitor cost structures and standardise customer service offerings, by controlling the brand experience from origin to consumption point. . 1. 2 Global Standardisation Strategy A global standardisation strategy aims at reducing costs by having Qantas’s headquarters and SCM activities centralised in Australia, but locating key functions in an optimal global location for that activity (Hill Jones, 2010). Following a Dynamic SWOT analysis undertaken by Nav-Star, it was found that Qantas could reduce operating costs by offshoring certain unskilled maintenance activities to a service centre in Hong Kong. This would allow Qantas to maximise synergies created by its new strategic alliance with China Eastern Airlines (Qantas, 2012).This destination offers labour force competitive advantages due to no minimum wage and advantageous tax rates (Euromonitor, 2010). This would make it suitable for unskilled maintenance work on aircraft, with more technical work being undertaken in Australia to maintain quality standards. Furthermore, offshoring would facilitate excellent career development for Australian Qantas employees as there will be a need to train and monitor a new Asian labour force. Hong Kong is a major Asian hub with a favourable economic and financial climate (Austrade, 2012), as well as being a gateway to China. Currently theChinese travel market is approximately 300 million. This is believed to grow to 500 million within three years (Qantas, 2012). If this strategy is employed it will reduce costs while creating both synergies and opportunities for further growth. 3. 2 Functional Strategy A functional strategy is advantageous for organisations to achieve superior efficiency, innovation, quality, and customer responsiveness (Jones Hill, 2012). Implementation of functional 5|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 strategies increases organisational capabilities in terms of resource availability and distinctive competencies. . 2. 1 HR Strategy A HR strategy aims at improving organisational outcomes through enhancing workforce capabilities. Key elements involve organisational development, job enrichment, employee empowerment and increased motivation through intrinsic motivators such as learning and development (Stone, 2010). Following a dynamic SWOT analysis of Qantas, it is evident that the airline can increase its revenue by reorganising the organisations HR focus. This would be possible through regular training and development of the workforce to satisfy intrinsic motivators.This is essential in light of the recent industrial and economic events (Qantas, 2012). Qantas’ 35,000 workforce personnel are primarily employees in either full-time or part-time positions, however in light of declining profits the movement towards transforming significant positions to a casual employment emerges (Qantas Databook, 2012). This creates numerous challenges for Qantas to ensure a superior level of quality and consistency across personnel divisions. The foremost segments subjective to this movement are ground staff, cabin crew, QCatering and Qantas Freight services (Qantas Media Releases, 2012).Given the dynamic nature of Qantas’ consumer base, employee training programs need to be tailored to adapt to the changing needs of customers. This is particularly relevant in the international arena, as this is where Qantas’ strategy needs to be enhanced to achieve industry differentiation and growth in emerging markets (Qantas, 2012). 3. 2. 2 Operational Strategy Management teams use operational strategies to effectively manage upstream and downstream value and supply chain activities in a cost-efficient manner. Hence, emphasis on 6|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 roductivity maximisation of resource-based bundling emerges via the capitalisation and operational restructuring of functional tactics and time specifications (Hanson, Hitt, Ireland Hoskisson, 2011). Qantas’ adverse internal and external environments are underpinned by operational expenses. These variables have forced the company to adopt cost reduction and low cost structure activities (Sharma Fisher, 1997). According to Qantas’ Databook (2012) cost price increases in operational activities (i. e. rising fuel prices, labour disputes, and replicated maintenance facilities) erode profit margins.This represents potential inefficiencies and weaknesses within Qantas’ internal management controls. Qantas CEO Alan Joyce announced in March 2012 the company’s strategic intent is to reduce costs without causing significant declines in revenue (Qantas Media Releases, 2012). A dynamic SWOT analysis identified for Qantas to negate and transpose limitations into positive company attributes. Qantas’ operational strategy should focus upon inefficiencies within Qantas’ supply and value chains thus requiring implementing increased controls.This measure would involve the coordination of activities directly attributed to horizontally and vertically integrated functions. Such measures would reaffirm a distinct organisational structure whilst ascertaining and securing improved efficiency, cost controls, environmental adaptability and profitability. Lin, Zu-Hsu Gibbs (2008), Gandolfi Hassoun (2010) and Buckingham Loomba (2001) assert effective operational restructuring to involve SWOT decision-making processes regarding cost structure reductions where value-adding functions are emphasised.These activities involve Reduction-In-Force (RIF) primarily concerning workforce size, skill requirements, employee flexibility, continuous improvement and activity-based costing initiatives. Additionally a SCM focus identifies supplier selection, procurement, inbound/outbound logistics, indirect materials, plant capacity and locations is a foremost facet of operational expenses providing avenues for reductions (Monczka, Handfield, Giunipero Patterson, 2011). Qantas should reassess the margins of each activity impacting the value-adding functions for increased |Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 company profits. As global economic uncertainty remains a primary concern in management strategic decisions the ability to respond effectively and integrate specified functional-level and operational strategies remains critical to long-term survival and profitability (Hanson, Hitt, Ireland Hoskisson, 2011). 4 Comparison and Evaluation Strategy One Strategy Two Feasibility substantial it can financial Qantas’s value chain activities represent by significant financial assets involving firmFeasibility Qantas resources possesses which leverage centralising its activities to its Australian infrastructure, SCM activities and highly headquarters, while offshoring non value skilled and specialised workforce personnel. adding functions such as maintenance. The As diversification workforce and scale ease of of such, through extensive employee Qantas’s development programmes (i. e. emphasis on global employee flexibility initiatives), SCM enables transference across the company.Further, streamlined cost structure improvements there is surplus cheap labour available in and internal communications will entice the both Asian destinations to make the strategy workforce to remain vibrant and instantly implementable with the use of knowledgeable. strategic partner airlines. Desirability Desirability Centralizing activities at the Australian Implementation of the HR strategy alongside headquarters will enable the company to increased transparency involving functions reduce its operating costs.By offshoring and related profit margins will increase the upstream and downstream operations to airline’s efficiency, quality of services, other locations globally, the airline will technological advancements and innovation, benefit from low cost materials and cheap thereby attracting more customers and labour, thus reducing its overall costs of retaining existing ones. This will increase the 8|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 manufacture and maintenance. company’s revenues and overall financial performance. Risks RisksRisks include cross cultural barriers, socio Risks include associated costs and potential economic and localised geo-political employee resistances to operational changes enhanced training and uncertainty. Given that the airlines will alongside offshore its activities across different development programmes. Moreover the locations globally, there is a risk of Australian operational and HR strategies should both industrial increased relations awareness issues. of Moreover, directly and indirectly forecast customer corporate needs and demand to determine accurate mechanisms.Thus enabling responsibility challenges including perceived budgeting versus actual human rights violations. capital to be directed along the value chain proportionally. Table 1 – Formulated Strategies 5 Recommendations Nav-star Consultants recommends that Qantas adopts Strategy One, an integrated global standardisation strategy, and Strategy Two, operational strategy. This will be implemented by leveraging the formidable financial and human resources of the company, thus redirecting capital where it’s needed to drive strategic change.This involves offshoring maintenance activities to Hong Kong to engage a leaner cost structure. This strategy will be supported internally by realigning its supply chain capabilities to locations that are more value oriented (Hill Jones, 2010). Further, both upstream and downstream activities will be refocused on more profitable flight routes, ground operations and strategic partner alliances. By utilising this integrated strategy, Qantas will maintain a flexible competitive advantage in the global airline industry. 9|Page Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 . 1 Distinguish from Competition For Qantas to remain competitive in both domestic and, more importantly, the international arena, a focus on providing value added services that differentiate from the competition is vital. Firstly, it is recommended that Qantas reviews its international network of destinations to divest from unprofitable flight routes and replacing these with arrangements using strategic alliance partners. This will also include an inevitable RIF that will focus on optimising workforce size and up skilling or cross training displaced employees (Noe Winkler, 2009).These optimisations allow Qantas to distinguish itself from its competitors by providing a leaner and more skilled workforce. Secondly, Qantas will need to consider integrating ground operations and supply chain activities to gain greater control of cost efficiencies, as well as reducing access for key competitors in foreign hubs (McCarthy-Byrne Mentzer, 2011). This will be achieved by utilising existing and new strategic partnerships and the establishment of new support facilities in the most value added location, Hong Kong.Any opportunity for the establishment of a wholly owned foreign subsidiary should seriously be considered. By integrating operations and activities, Qantas can remain adaptive to competitive pressures and distinguish its brand. 5. 2 Two Key Elements Two key elements in regards to Qantas’ implementation of its integrated strategy are, firstly, the Australian industrial relation consequences that may arise from the perception that Qantas is offshoring Australian jobs. Secondly, the importance of maintaining Qantas’ exceptional brand image regarding quality across maintenance and customer service.In order to prepare for likely industrial disputes, an extensive program of cross training and up skilling should be provided to employees who may be affected by this strategic reorientation. This will form a part of a risk mitigation strategy which will also reduce the dependence on domestic labour, of which industrial disputes will have the greatest impact (Balnave, Brown, 10 | P a g e Nav-Star Consultants MGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 Maconachie Stone, 2009). Further, internal and external public relation campaigns should be commenced to educate and reassure all stakeholders of Qantas.For Qantas to maintain its exceptional quality reputation and to further build its quality perception in the market, it will be important to present the changing strategic direction of the organisation as an opportunity for portfolio growth. This will lead to greater opportunities for Qantas employees both domestically and abroad. Additionally, through the use of investment in technology and training, Qantas can reduce costs and implement its strategic plan without compromising quality perception. 5. 3 Boundary ConditionThe recommended integrated global standardisation and operational strategy exemplifies distinct benefits, company differentiation and competitive advantages. A PESTEL analysis identified the foremost determinant critical to ongoing implementation processes and success regards geoeconomic influences. Additional PESTEL characteristics are exhibited in Appendix 2. Bilgin (2010) asserts for Qantas to effectively intensify its international operations and presence incorporating geo-economic risks into strategic planning is vital.Schlevogt (2001) outlines key variables and success factors as company financial reserves; supply and value chain productions; workforce personnel; technological and research developments; transportation capabilities; trade opportunities and international politics. Moreover, as numerous value-adding resources are sourced from international markets, foreign government political, trade and socio-economic policies are shaping the pace and course of global interactions and transactions.Numerous markets have experienced unsustainable practices via diminished growth strategies for labour market competition, increase export and investment ventures abroad and displacement through automation (Eun Resnick, 2011 Madura, 2010). These shortfalls, provide opportunities for Qantas to attain the under-utilised resources in these markets as capital outlay would be minimal compared to domestic market resource costs. These geo-economic characteristics are significant variables to Qantas’ overall business strategy, longevity and growth. As Nav-Star’s recommendation emphasises offshoring to emerging 11 | P a g e Nav-Star ConsultantsMGB309: Strategic Management Semester 1, 2012 Asian markets, increasing global economic and political uncertainty plagues the international arena. This directly affects Qantas’ reach and places pressures on strategic alliances and offshoring facilities to remain viable as commercial competition between multinationals is becoming more intense. Three significant and damaging economic collapses have occurred globally over the past 15 years altering political aspirations towards integration economies and globalisation, thus amending regulatory policies creating potential trade and capital investment ventures.Such obstacles include price volatility, fiscal imbalances, income disparities, structural employment and financial borrowing capabilities (Eun Resnick, 2011). Qantas’ supply and value chain activities are key success factors creating avenues for future revenue growth and profits via creating new markets utilising existing consumer bases. A specific focus on alignment of company culture simultaneously with operational excellence will create Qantas various product portfolio opportunities.Avenues to achieve this objective involve continual technological updates to improve operational efficiency via streamlining value chain activities and managing human resources. The nature of Qantas’ international and domestic endeavours instigates sophisticated and complex strategic planning and policies that address and mitigate geo-economic risks. As Qantas continues to consolidate maintenance hubs (Qantas Media Releases, 2012), effective HR programmes addressing highly skilled and motivated personnel are crucial.

The Brooklyn Arm of Starbucks Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Brooklyn Arm of Starbucks - Assignment Example Below are the proposed steps: Pre-advertising campaign Understanding the expectations of the target audience is of prime importance. We plan to conduct a random-sample research (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phptitle=Sampling_%28statistics%29&oldid=226589926 ) on what the Brooklyn people expect at Starbucks. For example, they could want a particular flavor peculiar to them. This will help us to have a strong base on which we can build our branding. Re-branding Starbucks already has a strong brand image. We intend to capitalize on it and give it a regional twist to make the branch an instant success. For this, we plan to work on a new profile, specifically catering to Brooklyn, a new tag-line, and a new menu card. With our pre-advertising campaign, we'd also be able to suggest new flavors based on the peoples' opinions. Media Plan Ad Campaigns Prior to the launch of the branch, we plan to use modes such as flyers and pamphlets that could be given out at busy eat-outs, malls and other areas where people meet. Print Ads Print advertisements have a longer shelf life and people retain information very well. Two weeks before the launch, along-side the pamphlets and the flyers, we could advertise in the local dailies. Launch With the campaigns people will be aware of the date, time, and location of Starbucks Coffee new branch launch. Schedule This section describes the project timeline. S.No. Phase Scope Timeline 1. Phase I Conduct a pre-advertising campaign to understand the community's expectations. August 2008 - October 2008 2. Phase II Re-branding October 2008 - November 2008 3. Phase III Ad campaigns December 2008 4. Phase IV Launch January 2009 Resource Distribution This section will describe the project team... Starbucks already has a strong brand image in New York and plans to capitalize on the same in making its new branch a success. For this, Starbucks requires a local Advertising Agency to work out a complete brand building plan for its launch. We have catered to several clients at Brooklyn by researching and understanding the community. All our projects; print and electronic, have been great successes. Our strength lies in our team of brilliant advertising professionals. Understanding the expectations of the target audience is of prime importance. We plan to conduct a random-sample research (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phptitle=Sampling_%28statistics%29&oldid=226589926 ) on what the Brooklyn people expect at Starbucks. For example, they could want a particular flavor peculiar to them. This will help us to have a strong base on which we can build our branding. Starbucks already has a strong brand image. We intend to capitalize on it and give it a regional twist to make the branch an instant success. For this, we plan to work on a new profile, specifically catering to Brooklyn, a new tag-line, and a new menu card. With our pre-advertising campaign, we'd also be able to suggest new flavors based on the peoples' opinions. We plan to outsource the pre-advertising campaign to a local marketing research co

Marijuana legalization in the United States Essay

Marijuana legalization in the United States - Essay Example The push to decriminalize marijuana has been going on for years. It started in the early 1970s in the region of Oregon and increased as days went by with people pushing for its use claiming it had medical uses as well as for recreational purposes. There was gradual acceptance of the substance with various states addressing the issue from various angles according to what was felt right by the law makers there. Colorado was the first one to legalize marijuana up to a certain level in 2005 after fifty four percent of the votes to determine the issue voted in favor of its legalization. The other municipals that followed include Pennsylvania in 2014, Washington DC in the same year and New York City. Many states have passed laws that are in favor of its use up to certain levels though none has been bold enough to allow it production and use at the users discretion.   The State of Oregon made the initial step in the fight to allow the use of cannabis and decriminalize it in early 1970s. T his move was faced by different opinions from various people in the government and also from the citizens who had the perception that the use of marijuana is linked with various criminal activities and the medical attributes it is given are vague and non-existent. However, lobby groups could not relent and the move was accepted in other states and in 1975 Alaska also passed a law to decriminalize it. The law was to allow possession of up to 4 ounces of the substance. This was to be in their residence.  

Evolution-Different Perspectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Evolution-Different Perspectives - Essay Example Darwin’s understanding of the universe shook the foundations on which the then understanding of human ethics and morals rested. This paper shall seek to analyze the main points of this debate and the different perspectives that have been employed to understand it. The paper shall also seek to analyze the problems that are posed by alternative theories regarding creation, especially that of divine creation. Darwin’s understanding of the universe and its creation was a very scientific one. It entailed a very rational view of the scientific world. He held the process of natural selection to be responsible for evolution. The phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ which has today been adopted by many corporate gurus for motivational speeches, is one that Darwin employed to explain the process by which certain traits are eliminated from the gene pool of a certain species. This, according to him, was also the reason behind the extinction of certain species from the face of the earth. Traits that would make members of a species able to survive the hardships that they had to face in life were the ones that would survive. This can be seen in the case of animals. If a certain animal has a certain favorable trait, it is more likely to find a mate that would lead to procreation. This would lead to this trait being transferred to the next generation. If favorable traits are weakened over generations, then the gene pool of the entire species would be weakened. This would increase the chances of the species to get extinct. Adaptation to a certain environment, according to Darwin was the only way in which species could survive. To take an example from the animal world, giraffes with long necks have survived. Earlier explanations to this theory included ones that attributed the length to straining of the necks to reach higher leaves. This, however, is not true and the elimination of genes that cause shorter necks from the gene pool is now considered to be th e real cause. Amongst human beings, a person with a high intelligence is likely to find a mate with a high intelligence. This would increase the chances of the next generation being one that has a high intelligence. This process would continue and this would increase the chances of a certain gene surviving in the gene pool of the human species (Darwin, 1995). Many condemned Darwin’s theories and the condemnation continues to this day. The main reason for this was the opposition to his ideas by religious groups, especially Christian groups. According to Christianity, the world was created by God in six days, after which he rested for the seventh day. This theory of divine creation where humans appeared on the scene immediately, and not through a scientific process of evolution, stood refuted by the theory of Darwin. Moreover, the theory of natural selection and the adage ‘survival of the fittest’ made existence on the earth similar to a race. In the Victorian era, people were unable to adjust to these theories since their existences were based, overtly, on codes of morality that were Christian. Even oppressive and exploitative economic systems like colonialism needed to be justified according to Christian theories. In this context, Darwin’s interventions made people think of a world where the sinner would not be punished and the good would not be

Characteristics Of Popular Fiction As Literary Genre English Language Essay

Characteristics Of Popular Fiction As Literary Genre English Language Essay This chapter will investigate the characteristics of popular fiction as a literary genre and will discuss the nature of translation, as well as the difficulties a translator may confront when translating popular fiction. The chapter is divided into two sub chapters. The first subchapter is written on popular fiction. This section examines main features of this literary genre and makes an attempt to define the relationship between popular fiction and popular culture, also the position of popular fiction within the national literary system. The second subchapter is dedicated to translation. In this subchapter, translation is viewed as a movement of a text from one culture to another. To explain this view, I will first analyse the parts of language that lend themselves to cultural specificity. These include collocation, culture-specific word, phraseological units, accent and speech genres. The purpose of this investigation s to ascertain why such cultural specificities are of importance to the original texts, as well as to the transited texts in particular, and why these cultural specificities may pose problems for translators. 1.Popular fiction The last ten years has witnessed the proliferation of popular fiction both in the number of titles and sales. For instance, Mills and Boon publish 70 new titles each month and pulp any unsold copies after three months. (The Independent, 2008). And there have been changes in reading habit; a report on Market Figures from the UK National Literacy Trust cited on the website of the Romantic Novelist Association reveals that there are more people reading for pleasure than ever before (65% now read for enjoyment compared to 55% in 1979). At the international level, Mills and Boon have their books translated into 25 languages and sell in 100 international markets and a stable of 1,300 authors worldwide are working for Mills and Boom. (The Independent, 2008) The following section of this chapter is dedicated to the study of popular fiction, its relationship with popular culture, and its place in the national literary system. 1.1 Popular fiction as a literary genre The term popular fiction has been defined in a number of ways. In New keywords: a revised vocabulary of culture and society (2005) the word popular has the following distinct uses: Something that is widespread and well-liked by many people; Popular in the contrast between high and popular culture; Popular to mean the mass media imposed on people by commercial interest; Popular used to describe a culture made by the people for themselves. In the very initial understanding, popular fiction is novels, which are well-liked by many people and sold out with enormous quatity. In terms of literary products, Gelder considers popular fiction to be the opposite of Literature. (Gelder, 2004 p.11). Gelder stressed his usage of Literature instead of literature by explaining that the latter is a general field of writing while the former means quality literary works written by such writers as George Elliot, Henry James, James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, Flannery OConnor, Vladimir Nabokov, Tobias Wolff and so on, (Gelder, 2004 p.11). According to Gelder, these masterpieces deploy a set of logics and practices that are different in kind to those deployed in the field of popular fiction.( Gelder, 2004 p.12). In other words, Literature has tangled plots and intense formal artistry (Amis, 2001 p. 327) and its authors focus on discourses of originality and creativity. Popular fiction, on the other hand, is a kind of industrial practice and its writers use the language of industry instead the language of art world. (Gelder, 2004 p.15) For this reason, Gelder suggests that we should distinguish between two terms author and writer. He argues that popular fiction has less to do with originality and creativity, so for popular fiction, the term writer is preferred to author. (Gelder, 2004 p.14). Another trait differentiating a writer of popular fiction to an author of Literature is their aims; while Literature fictions primary goal is the self-expression of an author, the primary focus of popular fiction is its readers. Thi s explains why popular fiction is strongly supported by the Feminist school. Macherey (1978) and Radway (1987) representatives of the Feminist school are of the belief that readers and their level of interest should be the main concerns of any writers if they want to sell their books. Was Ulysses really a great work of literature if almost no one read it for leisure, and if the few who dared found it so taxing? What did writers owe their audience? How easy were we supposed to make things for them? (Gelder, 2004 p. 23) Readers have a crucial role in the development of popular fiction since the success of popular fiction on the market has revealed why a writer should pay more attention to his/her readers and their interest, especially in the world where more and more people are reading for pleasure. At this point, popular fiction has its merit and it is by no means negligible. Popular fiction is the first rate story teller (Hamilton and Jones, 2009 p.vi) since each story tells a tale, which is the reflection of ordinary readers desire or experience and it has ability to touch readers compassion and understanding (Nash, 1990 p.3). The characteristics of popular fiction Popular fiction is the combination of two main elements: conventions and inventions. According to Cawelti, conventions are elements which are usually quite specific to a particular culture and period and do not mean the same outside this specific context. (Cawelti, 1976 p.5) Stereotyped characters, accepted ideas, commonly known metaphors even favourite plot are examples of conventions. Inventions, on the other hands, are elements which are uniquely imagined by creators (Ashley, 1989 p.87). Such inventional elements could be either new kinds of character ideas, innovative plot or creative usages of language. Both conventions and inventions play significant roles in a cultural context. While conventions represent the shared values of a society, inventions introduce new concepts to the society. Conventions maintain the traditions, customs and stability of a defined culture; inventions bring changes, new values. This explains the popularity of popular fictions since readers could find in these novels a piece of their lives, beliefs, and interests. Such findings bring them satisfaction and emotional security (Cawelti, 1976 p.9). At the same time, inventions provide them with new information about the world and the feeling of escape from the ordinary life around them. It is usually criticized that the genres of popular fiction make overuse of the literary formula, which is the synthesis of a number of specific cultural conventions in a period of time (Cawelti, 1976 p.6). Sewell (1984) stated that the value of popular fiction as literature was subsidiary because of limitations in novelty and creativity of formula fiction. However, such formula fiction fills a strong need for escape and relaxation of readers. Readers experience life, death, violence, and sex described in popular fiction in a manner that increases his sense of confidence and well-ordered existence. (Cawelti, 1976 p.16) Furthermore, formula could be considered to be a kind of literary art because of its two features (1) essential standardlization and (2) its relation to the needs of escape (Cawelti, 1976 p.8) The first characteristic of fomula is the essence of all literature. (Cawelti, 1976 p.8). This is the factor creating the common background between a writer and his/her audience. Such shared experience brings basic emotional security to readers and through this readers may find it easier not only to comprehend the plot, but also to interpret between the lines. In other words, when a bridge between a writer and his/her readers is created, it enables artistic communication. (Cawelti, 1976 p.9) The second feature of formula is of importance since such formulaic elements create the ideal world without limitations or uncertainties in readers imagination. (Cawelti, 1976 p.16) This aspect significantly distinguishes between popular fiction and serious literature. The latter describes the real world and forces its readers to face with the uncertain and unsecured reality when recognizing their involvement in characters whose fates reveal limitations and uncertainties. (Cawelti, 1976 p.13-18) The relationship between popular fiction and popular culture The term popular culture has been defined in numerous ways. Mukerji and Schudson give the following definition of popular culture: Popular culture refers to the beliefs and practices, and the objects through which they are organized, that are widely shared among a population. This includes folk beliefs, practices and objects rooted in local traditions, and mass beliefs, practices and objects generated in political and commercial centers. (Mukerji and Schudson , 1991 p.3-4) Bates and Ferri mention even a broader definition of popular culture: Popular culture is the television we watch, the movies we see, the fast food, or slow food, we eat, the clothes we wear, the music we sing and hear, the things we spend our money for, our attitude toward life. It is the whole society we live in, that which may or may not be distributed by the mass media. It is virtually our whole world (Bates and Ferri, 2010 p.3) From these definitions, it is evident that the formula mentioned above is cultural product. Culture is source for conventions, as well as is the background based on which the mutual understanding between a writer and his audiences. On the other hand, formula also has its impacts on culture since it may become conventional ways of representing and relating certain images, symbols. Flemmings James Bond, Doyles Sherlock Homes, or recently Rowlings Harry Potter could be taken as examples illustrating influences of fictional characters on culture. For instance, Gelder (2004) observes the phenomenon of Harry Potter and ascertains that Harry Potter has spread far beyond the novels themselves. Total sales had reached around 250 million across 200 countries, with the novels translated into 60 languages, including Latin and Welsh. The first Harry Potter film adaptation by Warner Bros. became at the time the second-highest grossing film in history (beaten only by James Camerons The Titanic). A huge amount of media spin-offs and merchandizing helped to keep Harry Potter at the centre of global cultural interest. Discovering such powerful influence of this phenomenon, Gelder concludes that The Harry Potter phenomenon has indeed rebranded, and reglobalized, Britain, presenting to the world a country confident in its past but trying harder than usual to work out the possibilities for the future. (Gelder, 2004 p. 34). Apparently, when a formula is widely successful, it has special appeal and becomes significant to the society. The process through which a formula develops and become a pattern of culture could be name cultural evolution. (Cawelti, 1976 p.20) 1.4 The relationship between popular fiction and literary system Despite the widespread and popularity of popular fiction, in academic world, the place of popular fiction and its importance in academia are still not clear. A confession of an interest in popular fiction would be received with doubts and uncomprehending responses. (Ashley, 1989 p.1) While genres of popular fiction-such as romance, thriller, crime fiction, or science fiction have attracted widespread attention from various perspectives, they have not been considered and investigated as disparate categories( Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.21). To explain the overlook on popular fiction, Ashley (1989) states that such neglect is the result of the negative attitude of literary criticism, which consider popular fiction to be the second-rate fiction, or a kind of cultural detritus. (Ashley, 1989 p.3) In the sixties of the twentieth century, Tony Bennet introduced the case of popular fiction as both symptom and cause of cultural degeneracy (Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.22). And in literary scholars views, whose focus was the language and style used in literature, popular fiction was a meretricious cousin of real literature. (Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.30) However, it is worth viewing popular fiction in the polysystem frame in order to reconsider the position of popular fiction in literature, Even- Zohar introduced his concept of polysystem with the idea that literature is an historical phenomenon that should be analyzed by systematic approaches similar to that of other sciences. He describes The idea of structuredness and systemicity need no longer be identified with homogeneity, a semiotic system can be conceived of as a heterogeneous, open structure. It is, therefore, very rarely a unisystem but is, necessarily, a polysystem a multiple system, a system of various systems which intersect with each other and partly overlap, using concurrently different options, yet functioning as one structured whole, whose members are interdependent (Even-Zohar, 1990 p.11) A literary polysystem is envisaged as the interlinking chains of genres and producers which allow us to identify different types of literature and their social purposes. In the polysystem theory, all fields of literary creativity, popular literature, translated literature, childrens literature, as well as semi-litera ry texts, may become subjects of research. The predominant factors in the polysytem concept are stratification, heterogeneity and dynamics. The polysystem theory also assumes a series of centres and peripheries belonging to the various system within polysystem . There is always a struggle among texts created. The goal of such a battle is to move into the centre of the polysystem, but only a small number of them acquire the status of official, high, and become canonical. Texts which move successfully to the central position are those which are of popularity on the market, as well as among readers. Obviously there are some certain restrictions in the polysytem theories such as the blurred boundaries between centre and periphery but the theory of Even-Zohar allows us to observe the movement and social positioning of popular fiction along with discovering the factors which influence the position of popular fiction in the national literary system. The fame of popular fiction as stated in the introduction of this section, together with the certain contribution of popular fiction to the development of current literary and cultural trend, has revealed popular fiction is an integral part of the literary system and it is worth conducting more insightful research to this field. 2. The translation of popular fiction The first section of this chapter has not only examined popular fiction as a literary genre, but also investigated the characteristics of this genre, as well as its relationship with popular culture and its place in the national literary systems. The following section of this chapter studies the challenges, which popular fiction may pose to a translator during the translation procedure. This section will focus on a variety of theoretical approaches available to translators when working with the set of conventions of popular fiction. This is an attempt to demonstrate principles of translation theory, as well as the act of transfer a text from one cultural context to another. 2.1 What is translation? From the dawn of history, to exchange information has always been one of the most important activities of mankind. Thus, it has always been extremely significant to have sufficient information about what is happening in near or distant countries. The more powerful countries prefer to demonstrate their achievements in economics, military and especially arts, as music and painting have universal appeal, which affect human feelings. Literature plays an extraordinarily crucial role among arts. Unlike music and painting, which influence people of different nationalities directly through sight and hearing, literary works often face significant obstacles if their readers native tongues are different from that of the authors. Hence, translation is used as a powerful tool to help target readers and source authors overcome the barriers of language. Translation has a special place in the literary process as translated literature facilities access to the literature and culture of other nations. In fact, translation is a key to the development of a national literary process as by translating works of foreign literature, features (both principles and elements) are introduced into the home literature which did not exist there before. (Even Zohar, 1978 p.47) Hatim and Mason define translation as an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication (which may have been intended for different purposes and different readers/hearers (Hatim and Mason, 1997 p.1). The concept of boundaries in this definition of Hatim and Mason, to some extents, is relevant to what Pym calls text belongs in his book Translation and Text Transfer. (Pym, 1992 p.101). Pym (1992) considers that a text has a place, time and original context where it is completely understood. So when a text is translated from one language into another, there are changes of values in those culturally bound elements in order to make a target audience engage with text in a similar way to its original readers. (Pym, 1992 p.102) Pym states that translation can be seen as a special kind of response to things that have been transferred or are meant to be transferred (Pym, 1992 p.18). In other words, translation is an act of moving the text belong from one context to another. It is obvious that Pyms definition is not restricted to the mechanical linguistic work of a translator but it observes translation from various aspects, which can be political situation, social context or historical period. Jacobson (1987), who believes that the meaning of any word or phrase whatsoever is definitely a semiotic fact defines translation as an interpretation a verbal sign. In his opinion, there are three types of interpreting: (Jacobson, 1987 p. 428 -429) 1. Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. 2. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. 3. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. Such definition of Jacobson is useful since it offers an understanding of translation within a language, as well as several languages. The intersemiotic translation (the change of one form to another) allows the role for the media in translation process. This might be of importance when taking into accounts popular fiction since several translations of this genre are made only after the successes of their screen adaptations. 2.2 The challenges for the translators of popular fiction Popular fiction, with its sets of conventions as discussed in the previous section, may pose a great challenge for translators. An initial reading of works by Marian Keyes, Cecelia Ahern, Helen Fielding, and Sophie Kinsella would suggest that the following aspects of language in popular fiction may appear challenging for the translators. 2.2.1 Phraseological Units Linguists in the Eastern European tradition have long referred to all formulaic phrases as phraseological units or phraseologisms ( Kunin, 1960; Skrypnyk, 1972; Zorivchak, 1983). The corresponding subfield of study has been designated as phraseology (the study of phrases). In the Western tradition the first comprehensive book on phraseology in English Phraseology: Theory, Analysis and Applications by A.  Cowie was published only in 1998. The term phrase in the Anglophone world is used as a rather general concept. Random House Dictionary defines it as (my highlighting): 1. Grammar. a. a sequence of two or more words arranged in a grammatical construction and acting as a unit in a sentence. b. (in English) a sequence of two or more words that does not contain a finite verb and its subject or that does not consist of clause elements such as subject, verb, object, or complement, as a preposition and a noun or pronoun, an adjective and noun, or an adverb and verb. 2. Rhetoric. a word or group of spoken words that the mind focuses on momentarily as a meaningful unit and is preceded and followed by pauses. 3. a characteristic, current, or proverbial expression On closer consideration it can be observed that the semantics of phrase in English tradition do not differ significantly from the notion of phraseologism which is defined as sustainable combination of words with completely or partially reconsidered value (Kunin, 1960 p.8) Yet, the suffix -ism indicated a more scientific approach towards studying it. The renowned Ukrainian scholar L.  Skrypnyk (1972) defines a phraseological unit (PU) as a lexical and grammatical unit of two or more components which are grouped according to a syntactical model of a sentence or a phrase. (Skrypnyk, 1972 p.17) A PU is characterized by a unified meaning and is reproduced in speech automatically. Hence L.  Skrypnyk draws attention to the defining properties of PUs: A PU is easily retrieved from the praseological corpus of the language by the speakers; The meaning of a PU is unified and cannot always be deduced from the usual meanings of its components; PU functions above the lexical level: the meaning of the phraseological unit contains other categories of thought such as judgment or assessment. V. Teliya (1998), a prominent Russian linguist who has contributed to A.  Cowies book , argues that cultural information incorporated in many phrases needs to be taken into account since phraseological units are also socially-conditioned phenomena. It is a two-way process: they reflect the common consciousness of speakers in a particular community on the one hand and frame the linguistic surrounding of that same community on the other. ( V.Teliya 1998, p.55-57) Phraseological units usually perform a specific function in a specific text situation. Similarly to any other communicative aspect in written speech, they may easily lose this function if uprooted. The following theoretical framework which was elaborated by Prof.  A.V.  Kunin (1960) describes methods applied to rendering phraseological units of a source language by means of a target one: Translating by a full equivalent when every element of the SL PU is preserved in the TL: subject and logical information, imagery, expressiveness and grammatical structure (with some slight modifications). Absolutely equivalent PUs are possible if they originate from one source (Greek mythology, ancient history or literature, Bible and so on) Some minor alterations in the structure or word order do not affect the subject and logical meaning, imagery and expressiveness. Translating by a partial equivalent with partly different components (which means partly different images); the difference between SL and TL partial equivalents shows in the structure of TL variant, in the omission/addition of a component in the TL variant, in the substitution of the component or in the generalization/concretization of the original meaning. Translating by a partial equivalent with completely different components but common expressiveness and subject and logical information; sometimes one SL unit has two or more equivalents of this kind. Translating by a partial equivalent with the same subject and logical information, but different imagery and expressiveness. Translating by a descriptive paraphrase: by single words, by free/neutral combination, by sentence-long descriptive phrase. Translating by means of a calque: copying each component or copying imagery with slightly modified componential structure 2.2.2. Culture specific word Pyms idea of text belongs mentions that any specific text belongs to a certain group of people or situation, so when translation is a complicated task due to a lack of equivalent terms between two different languages. Furthermore, Larson (1984) notices that the receptor audience will decode the translation in terms of his own culture and experience, not in terms of the culture and experience of the author and audience of the original document.(Larson, 1984 p.436-437) In other words, all meaning is culturally belonged and the response to a given text is also culturally belonged. Pym sums up the relationship between culture and translation by stating that it is possible to accept that everything we know about cultures beyond our own has come to us, has been appropriated or assimilated, through a process of transfer and translation. (Pym, 1992 p.17) Obviously, one of the most challenging issues of translation may be found in the difference between cultures. Larson (1984) observes that this difference is reflected in the amount of vocabulary which is available to talk about a particular topic (Larson, 1984 p.95). The two Bulgarian researchers Vlahov and Florin refer to this type of vocabulary as realia and define it as words of the popular language representing denominations of objects, concepts, typical phenomena of a given geographic place, of material life or of social-historical peculiarities of some people, nation, country, tribe, that for this reason carry a national, local or historical color; these words do not have exact matches in other languages. (Vlahov and Florin .1969 p.438) Baker (1992) when mentioning this category of vocabulary points out that the source language words may express a concept which is abstract or concrete, it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a type of food. and Baker calls such concepts culture-specific items (Baker, 1992 p.21) These culture specific items are referred to as cultureme in the book Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained by Nord. He defines cultureme as a cultural phenomenon that is present in culture X but not present (in the same way) in culture Y. (Nord, 1997 p.34). According to Newmark (1998), culturally specific words can be recognized easily in a text since they are strongly related with a particular culture and a translator cannot translate them directly. It is of importance for a translator to be aware of such the text belongs features of what s/he is to translate and consider translation to be a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages. When translating culture specific words (realia), a translator is advised to take into consideration the following factors: (Vlahov and Florin, 1980 p. 92-30) Firstly, the nature of the text and the importance of realia in the context should be taken into account. Next it is worth considering the nature of realia, its role in the source culture. Then the nature of target language, as well as the target reader, should also be paid great attention to. In terms of strategies, there are a number of translation procedures available. The following tactics are suggested by Vlahov and Florin (Vlahov and Florin , 1980 p.87-88): Transcription/ transliteration; Translation calque /half calque; Adaptation of foreign realia; Substitution by target realia; Functional analogue; Description, explanation, interpretation; Contextual translation 2.2.3 Collocation Collocation can be defined as the tendency of certain words to co-occur regularly in a given language (Baker, 1992 p.47). At one point, this has to do with propositional meaning, the meaning which is understood from the relationship between a word or an utterance and what it refers to (Baker, 1992 p.286). On the other hand, meaning cannot always account for collocational patterning. For example English speakers say to pay a visit but not to perform a visit. It can be said that the patterns of collocation are largely arbitrary and independent of meaning (Baker, 1992 p.48). The translation of collocations may be problematic, especially when it comes to culture-bound collocation. Such collocations as happy hour, Bank Holidayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ appear quite frequently in popular fiction since they reflect everyday life and culture. Baker states that such culture-specific collocations express ideas previously unexpressed in the target language. Like culture-specific words, they point to conce pts which are not easily accessible to the target readers. (Baker, 1992 p.60-61). In the end of chapter 2 of her book In other words: a course book for translation Baker mentions these below strategies which can be used for translating collocation: Translation by a collocation of same meaning and form; Translation by paraphrase; Translation by a collocation of similar meaning but dissimilar form; Omission. 2.2.4 Speech genres Bakhtin introduces the term speech genres in his book Speech genres and other late essays. Bakhtin s idea is that each individual has their own way of using language, which is realized in the form of concrete utterance, either oral or written. The utterance produced reflects not only a situation -thematic content, communication goal style but also the compositional structure. These factors have equal role in the creation of an utterance and they are all determined by reception of an individual. (Bakhtin 1986, p. 60) In other words, it is not situation or language that vary, but the ways in which individuals put words together to describe a specific situation. This finding of Bakhtin is of importance because it may help to define the identity and origin of a person. In this way, the use of speech genres in a novel has culturally specific characteristics since a translator may have good commanding of a foreign language but still s/he may feel helpless in certain spheres of communicati on precisely because they do not have a practical command of the generic form in the given spheresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this is entirely a matter of inability to command a repertoire of genres of social conversation. (Emerson, 1990 p.275) Leppihalme refers to the gaps of understanding caused by an inability to comprehend speech genres in a particular situational and cultural context as culture bumps (Leppihalme, 1997 p.viii) In novels, speech genres are used as a tool to indicate the origin, cultural and educational background of a character. One of the most well-known forms of speech genres is Allusion, which is a reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place, or event, or to another literary work or passage. (Leppihalme, 1997 p.6) As culture-bound elements, the meaning of allusion can be conveyed only by familiarity, as well as, solid understanding of source culture. According to Leppihalme, this literary device is used to call attention to ones learning or wider reading; as well as to enrich the work by bringing new meaning and association; or to characterise people, suggest thoughts or unconscious impressions or attitudes in characters; also to increase the significance of ones work. (Leppihalme, 1997 p.7) A llusion in particular, as well as speech genres in general should be treated with great care in order to preserve its purpose of use. A translator is required to have solid knowledge of the original culture in order to understand the usages and convey